A variety of imaging techniques have been used to diagnose diseases. Included among these imaging techniques is X-ray imaging. In X-rays, the images produced reflect the different densities of structures and tissue in the body of the patient. To improve the diagnostic usefulness of this imaging technique, contrast agents may be employed to increase the density of tissues of interest relative to surrounding tissues. Examples of such contrast agents include, for example, barium and iodinated compounds, which may be used for X-ray studies of the gastrointestinal region, including the esophagus, stomach, intestines and rectum. Contrast agents may also be used for computed tomography (CT) and computer assisted tomography (CAT) studies to improve visualization of tissue of interest, for example, the gastrointestinal tract.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is another imaging technique which, unlike X-rays, does not involve ionizing radiation. MRI may be used for producing cross-sectional images of the body in a variety of scanning planes such as, for example, axial, coronal, sagittal or orthogonal. MRI employs a magnetic field, radio frequency energy and magnetic field gradients to make images of the body. The contrast or signal intensity differences between tissues mainly reflect the T1 (longitudinal) and T2 (transverse) relaxation values and the proton density, which generally corresponds to the free water content, of the tissues. To change the signal intensity in a region of a patient by the use of a contrast medium, several possible approaches are available. For example, a contrast medium may be designed to change either the T1, the T2 or the proton density.
Generally speaking, MRI requires the use of contrast agents. If MRI is performed without employing a contrast agent, differentiation of the tissue of interest from the surrounding tissues in the resulting image may be difficult. In the past, attention has focused primarily on paramagnetic contrast agents for MRI. Paramagnetic contrast agents involve materials which contain unpaired electrons. The unpaired electrons act as small magnets within the main magnetic field to increase the rate of longitudinal (T1) and transverse (T2) relaxation. Paramagnetic contrast agents typically comprise metal ions, for example, transition metal ions, which provide a source of unpaired electrons. However, these metal ions are also generally highly toxic. In an effort to decrease toxicity, the metal ions are typically chelated with ligands.
Metal oxides, most notably iron oxides, have also been employed as MRI contrast agents. While small particles of iron oxide, for example, particles having a diameter of less than about 20 nm, may have desirable paramagnetic relaxation properties, their predominant effect is through bulk susceptibility. Nitroxides are another class of MRI contrast agent which are also paramagnetic. These have relatively low relaxivity and are generally less effective than paramagnetic ions.
The existing MRI contrast agents suffer from a number of limitations. For example, increased image noise may be associated with certain contrast agents, including contrast agents involving chelated metals. This noise generally arises out of intrinsic peristaltic motions and motions from respiration or cardiovascular action. In addition, the signal intensity for contrast agents generally depends upon the concentration of the agent as well as the pulse sequence employed. Absorption of contrast agents can complicate interpretation of the images, particularly in the distal portion of the small intestine, unless sufficiently high concentrations of the paramagnetic species are used. See, e.g., Kornmesser et al., Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 6:124 (1988).
Other contrast agents may be less sensitive to variations in pulse sequence and may provide more consistent contrast. However, high concentrations of particulates, such as ferrites, can cause magnetic susceptibility artifacts which are particularly evident, for example, in the colon where the absorption of intestinal fluid occurs and the superparamagnetic material may be concentrated.
Toxicity is another problem which is generally associated with currently available contrast agents, including contrast agents for MRI. For example, ferrites often cause symptoms of nausea after oral administration, as well as flatulence and a transient rise in serum iron. The gadolinium ion, which is complexed in Gd-DTPA, is highly toxic in free form. The various environments of the gastrointestinal tract, including increased acidity (lower pH) in the stomach and increased alkalinity (higher pH) in the intestines, may increase the likelihood of decoupling and separation of the free ion from the complex.
Ultrasound is another valuable diagnostic imaging technique for studying various areas of the body, including, for example, the vasculature, such as tissue microvasculature. Ultrasound provides certain advantages over other diagnostic techniques. For example, diagnostic techniques involving nuclear medicine and X-rays generally involves exposure of the patient to ionizing electron radiation. Such radiation can cause damage to subcellular material, including deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. Ultrasound does not involve such potentially damaging radiation. In addition, ultrasound is relatively inexpensive relative to other diagnostic techniques, including CT and MRI, which require elaborate and expensive equipment.
Ultrasound involves the exposure of a patient to sound waves. Generally, the sound waves dissipate due to absorption by body tissue, penetrate through the tissue or reflect off of the tissue. The reflection of sound waves off of tissue, generally referred to as backscatter or reflectivity, forms the basis for developing an ultrasound image. In this connection, sound waves reflect differentially from different body tissues. This differential reflection is due to various factors, including the constituents and the density of the particular tissue being observed. Ultrasound involves the detection of the differentially reflected waves, generally with a transducer that can detect sound waves having a frequency of one megahertz (MHZ) to ten MHZ. The detected waves can be integrated into an image which is quantitated and the quantitated waves converted into an image of the tissue being studied.
As with the diagnostic techniques discussed above, ultrasound also generally involves the use of contrast agents. Exemplary contrast agents include, for example, suspensions of solid particles, emulsified liquid droplets, and gas-filled bubbles. See, e.g., Hilmann et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,466,442, and published International Patent Applications WO 92/17212 and WO 92/21382. Widder et al., published application EP-A-0 324 938, discloses stabilized microbubble-type ultrasonic imaging agents produced from heat-denaturable biocompatible protein, for example, albumin, hemoglobin, and collagen.
The use of echocardiography for the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases has generally been limited to indirect methods which involve the detection and quantitation of abnormalities in wall motion of the heart. Echocardiography has also been used in connection with methods for detecting pathologies of the heart to identify cardiac masses, emboli, thrombi, vegetative lesions (endocarditis), myxomas, and other lesions. See, e.g., M. L. Marcus et al., Cardiac Imaging: A Companion to Braunwald's Heart Disease, W.B. Saunders Co., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., Philadelphia, Pa., pp. 536-556 (1991). Emboli or thrombi may be associated with certain cardiovascular diseases, particularly arrhythmic disorders. As used throughout the present disclosure, the term "arrhythmic disorder" refers to cardiovascular disorders which are characterized by the presence of an arrhythmia, i.e., a variation from the normal rhythm of the heart beat. Examples of arrhythmic disorders include, for example, sinus arrhythmia, premature beat, heart block, atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, pulsus alternans and paroxysmal tachycardia. Of these, atrial fibrillation (AF) is particularly problematic, and is characterized by a chaotic, rapid ECG pattern of rates of greater than about 350 beats per minute. AF may occur in paroxysmal and persistent forms, and may occur in the presence or absence of other underlying cardiovascular diseases, such as rheumatic heart disease, coronary artery disease, hypertension or hyperthyroidism. AF is more common in males, and tends to increase in incidence with increasing age. Hemodynamic consequences of AF are manifest as weakness, fainting, shortness of breath and general chest discomfort. AF is often a predisposition for systemic emboli and/or thrombi, which can lead, for example, to stroke due to thrombus formation in the fibrillating atrium. To prevent emboli and/or thrombi in patients suffering from AF, anticoagulants, such as warfarin (coumadin) are frequently prescribed. However, a serious drawback of this type of therapy is that the use of anticoagulants is associated with an increased risk of hemorrhaging, especially when anticoagulants are used over an extended period of time. Accordingly, anticoagulants are preferably only administered to patients who are in real need of such treatment, i.e., patients experiencing emboli and/or thrombi.
The quality of images produced from ultrasound has improved significantly. Nevertheless, further improvement is needed, particularly with respect to images involving vasculature in tissues that are perfused with a vascular blood supply. Accordingly, there is a need for improved ultrasound techniques, including improved contrast agents which are capable of providing medically useful images of the vasculature and vascular-related organs, as well as improved techniques which enable the detection of emboli and/or thrombi, for example, prior to the administration of an anticoagulant.
The reflection of sound from a liquid-gas interface is extremely efficient. Accordingly, bubbles, including gas-filled bubbles, are useful as contrast agents. The term "bubbles", as used herein, refers to vesicles which are generally characterized by the presence of one or more membranes or walls surrounding an internal void that is filled with a gas or precursor thereto. Exemplary bubbles include, for example, liposomes, micelles and the like. As discussed more fully hereinafter, the effectiveness of bubbles as contrast agents depends upon various factors, including, for example, the size and/or elasticity of the bubble.
With respect to the effect of bubble size, the following discussion is provided. As known to the skilled artisan, the signal which is reflected off of a bubble is a function of the radius (r.sup.6) of the bubble (Rayleigh Scatterer). Thus, in the frequency range of diagnostic ultrasound, a bubble having a diameter of 4 micrometer (.mu.m) possesses about 64 times the scattering ability of a bubble having a diameter of 2 .mu.m. Thus, generally speaking, the larger the bubble, the greater the reflected signal.
However, bubble size is limited by the diameter of capillaries through which the bubbles must pass. Generally, contrast agents which comprise bubbles having a diameter of greater than 10 .mu.m can be dangerous since microvessels may be occluded. Accordingly, it is desired that greater than about 99% of the bubbles in a contrast agent have a diameter of less than 10 .mu.m. Mean bubble diameter is important also, and should be greater than 1 .mu.m, with greater than 2 .mu.m being preferred. The volume weighted mean diameter of the bubbles should be about 7 to 10 micrometer.
The elasticity of bubbles is also important. This is because highly elastic bubbles can deform, as necessary, to "squeeze" through capillaries and/or to permit the flow of blood around the bubbles. This decreases the likelihood of occlusion. The effectiveness of a contrast agent which comprises bubbles is also dependent on the bubble concentration. Generally, the higher the bubble concentration, the greater the reflectivity of the contrast agent.
Another important characteristic which is related to the effectiveness of bubbles as contrast agents is bubble stability. As used herein, particularly with reference to gas-filled bubbles, "bubble stability" refers to the ability of bubbles to retain gas entrapped therein after exposure to a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. To be effective as contrast agents, bubbles generally need to retain greater than 50% of entrapped gas after exposure to pressure of 300 millimeters (mm) of mercury (Hg) for about one minute. Particularly effective bubbles retain 75% of the entrapped gas after being exposed for one minute to a pressure of 300 mm Hg, with an entrapped gas content of 90% providing especially effective contrast agents. It is also highly desirable that, after release of the pressure, the bubbles return to their original size. This is referred to generally as "bubble resilience."
Bubbles which lack desirable stability provide poor contrast agents. If, for example, bubbles release the gas entrapped therein in vivo, reflectivity is diminished. Similarly, the size of bubbles which possess poor resilience will be decreased in vivo, also resulting in diminished reflectivity.
The stability of bubbles disclosed in the prior art is generally inadequate for se as contrast agents. For example, the prior art discloses bubbles, including gas-filled liposomes, which comprise lipid-containing walls or membranes. See, e.g., Ryan et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,900,540 and 4,544,545; Tickner et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,276,885; Klaveness et al., WO 93/13809 and Schneider et al., EPO 0 554 213 and WO 91/15244. Lanza et al., WO 93/20802 discloses acoustically reflective oligolamellar liposomes, which are multilamellar liposomes with increased aqueous space between bilayers or have liposomes nested within bilayers in a nonconcentric fashion, and thus contain internally separated bilayers. Their use as ultrasonic contrast agents to enhance ultrasonic imaging, and in monitoring a drug delivered in a liposome administered to a patient, is also described. D'Arrigo, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,684,479 and 5,215,680 disclose gas-in-liquid emulsions and lipid-coated microbubbles, respectively.
Many of the bubbles disclosed in the prior art have undesirably poor stability. Thus, the prior art bubbles are more likely to rupture in vivo resulting, for example, in the untimely release of any therapeutic and/or diagnostic agent contained therein. Various studies have been conducted in an attempt to improve bubble stability. Such studies have included, for example, the preparation of bubbles in which the membranes or walls thereof comprise proteins, such as albumin, or materials which are apparently strengthened via crosslinking. See, e.g., Klaveness et al., WO 92/17212, in which there are disclosed bubbles which comprise proteins crosslinked with biodegradable crosslinking agents. A presentation was made by Moseley et al., at a 1991 Napa, California meeting of the Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, which is summarized in an abstract entitled "Microbubbles: A Novel MR Susceptibility Contrast Agent." The microbubbles described by Moseley et al. comprise air coated with a shell of human albumin. Alternatively, bubble membranes can comprise compounds which are not proteins but which are crosslinked with biocompatible compounds. See, e.g., Klaveness et al., WO 92/17436, WO 93/17718 and WO 92/21382.
Prior art techniques for stabilizing bubbles, including the use of proteins in the outer membrane or crosslinking of the membrane components, suffer from various drawbacks. For example, the crosslinking described above generally involves the use of new materials, including crosslinked proteins or other compounds, for which the metabolic fate is unknown. In addition, crosslinking requires additional chemical process steps, including isolation and purification of the crosslinked compounds. Moreover, the use in bubble membranes of proteins, such as albumin, and crosslinking of the bubble membrane components, can impart rigidity to the walls of the bubbles. This results in bubbles having educed elasticity and, therefore, a decreased ability to deform and pass through capillaries. Thus, there is a greater likelihood of occlusion of vessels with prior art contrast agents that involve proteins and/or crosslinking.
Accordingly, new and/or better contrast agents and methods for providing same are needed. The present invention is directed to this, as well as other, important ends.